Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj

• The 350th anniversary of the coronation of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj celebrated across the state of Maharashtra (June 2023).
• Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj was the founder of the Maratha Empire in western India.
• He was born on February 19, 1630 to Shahaji Bhosle and Jijabai in the fort of Shivneri, near the city of Junnar of the Pune district. 
• With his valor and great administrative skills, Shivaji carved out an enclave from the declining Adilshahi sultanate of Bijapur. It eventually became the genesis of the Maratha Empire.
• He was known as the Father of Indian Navy, Shivaji was the first to realise the importance of having a naval force, and therefore he strategically established a navy and forts at the coastline to defend the Konkan side of Maharashtra.
• He was a secular ruler who was very accommodating of all religions. He had numerous Muslim soldiers in his army.
• He had a council of ministers (Asht Pradhan) to advise him on the matters of the state but he was not bound by it.
• Raigad fort: 
  • It is a hill fort situated in Raigad district, Maharashtra. It is situated in the Sahyadri mountain ranges or the western ghats.
  • Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj made this his capital in 1674, after being crowned as the king of the entire Maratha Kingdom and later on, the Maratha Empire.

Purana Qila

• It is located on the South Eastern part of the present city of New Delhi. 
• It is one of the oldest forts in Delhi and built on the banks of river Yamuna.
• The present citadel at Purana Qila started its construction in the reign of Humayun and was completed by Sher Shah Suri.
• It is rectangular in shape and is spread over an area of 1.5 kilometers. 
• Another amazing feature of the Purana Qila are the three gates that are a display of a happy blend of Hindu and Muslim styles of architecture. – Bara Darwaza or the Big Gate facing west, the Humayun Gate facing south, and the Talaqqi Gate, which is often referred to as the forbidden gate.
• All of the gates are double-storeyed and comprise of huge semi-circular bastions flanking either of their sides.
• The Qila was inspired by Jama Masjid, which was established 15 years before the reconstruction of Qila.

Adi Kailash

• It is considered to be one of the five Kailash mountains and is believed to be the abode of Lord Shiva.
• It is also known as Shiva Kailash, Chota Kailash, Baba Kailash, or Jonglingkong Peak.
• It is located in the Pithoragarh district of Uttarakhand.
• It is situated among the Kumaon Himalayan mountain range.
• It lies in close proximity to the Indo-Tibetan border near Sin La Pass.
• It is scripted in Hindu Mythology that Shiva meditated and stayed at Adi Kailash for some time.Adi Kailash is known as the replica of Kailash Mansarovar. It is immensely popular among devotees of Shiva.
• Pancha Kailash: 
  • These are the five holy peaks that are said to be the abodes of Lord Shiva.
  • The five peaks are Kailash Manasarovar, Adi Kailash, Kinnaur Kailash, Shrikant Mahadev Kailash and Manimahesh Kailash.

Agra Fort

• It is a large 16th-century fortress of red sandstone located on the banks of Yamuna River in the historic city of Agra, west-central Uttar Pradesh.
• It is about 5 km northwest of its more famous sister monument, the Taj Mahal.
• It was built under the commission of Emperor Akbar in 1565.
• It was only during the reign of Akbar’s grandson, Shah Jahan, that the site took on its current state.
• It was the main residence of the emperors of the Mughal Dynasty till 1638, when the capital was shifted from Agra to Delhi.
• The fort was invaded and captured by the Maratha Empire in the early 18th century. Thereafter, it changed hands between the Marathas and their foes many times.
• After their catastrophic defeat at Third Battle of Panipat by Ahmad Shah Abdali in 1761, Marathas remained out of the region for the next decade. Finally Mahadji Shinde took the fort in 1785.
• It was lost by the Marathas to the British during the Second Anglo-Maratha War, in 1803.
• The fort was the site of a battle during the Indian rebellion of 1857, which caused the end of the British East India Company’s rule in India, and led to a century of direct rule of India by Britain.
• Architecture:
  • The fort is crescent-shaped, with a long, nearly straight wall facing the Yamuna river on the east side.
  • The fort houses a maze of buildings, including vast underground sections.
  • The outer wall is surrounded by a wide and deep moat on three sides.
  • The Agra Fort has four main gateways- the Khizri Gate, Amar Singh Gate, Delhi Gate and Ghazni Gate.
  • Among the major attractions in the fort is Jahāngīr’s Palace (Jahāngīri Mahal), built by Akbar as a private palace for his son Jahāngir.
• The fort complex was designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1983.

Homo Naledi

• Paleoanthropologist have recently uncovered evidence that suggests that Homo naledi, an extinct human species that lived hundreds of thousands of years ago, may have buried their dead and carved meaningful symbols in a cave.
• Homo naledi is a previously-unknown species of extinct hominin.
• Fossil  of Homo Naledi were first discovered in the Dinaledi Chamber of the Rising Star Cave system in South Africa during an expedition led by Lee Berger beginning October 2013. 
• This excavation remains the largest collection of a single hominin species that has been found in Africa. 
• Homo naledi appears to have lived near the same time as early ancestors of modern humans. 
• Homo naledi shared some similarities with humans, like walking upright and manipulating objects by hand, but members of the species had smaller heads, a shorter stature, and were thinner and more powerfully built.
• Homo naledi’s shoulders — which were oriented for better climbing — and teeth shared similarities with earlier hominins like Australopithecus.
• They had human-like hands and feet but a brain a third of the size of humans.
• Anatomic features that H. naledi had in common with other members of Homo include reduced cheek teeth and similar jaws and feet.

Bagh Print

• MP Tourism Board in association with district administration Dhar recently launched a training camp on manufacturing sustainable bags based on Bagh Print.
• Bagh Print is the name of a block printing technique unique to a small village called Bagh in Madhya Pradesh.
• The craft, as well as the village, derive their names from the River ‘Baghini’ that flows through the village.
• It was started by the community of Muslim Khatris (they were converts to Islam under the influence of a sufi saint) in 1962 when they migrated from Manawar to Bagh.
• Weaving and hand block printing process with the geometric designs, imaginative use of red and black natural colours and taking advantage of the chemical properties of the river and effective use of colours results in Bagh Prints in a unique art form. 
• In this printing technique, the cloth used is cotton and silk cloth which, are subject to the treatment of a blend of corroded iron fillings, alum and Alizarin.
• The designs are patterned by skilled artisans.
• They are created using natural dyes, which are eco-friendly and non-hazardous. 
• On completion of the printing process, the printed fabric is subject to repeated washing in the flowing waters of the river and then dried in the sun for a specific period to obtain a fine luster.

Gulabi Meenakari Handicraft

• It is one of the rarest crafts in India that is practiced in the bylanes of Varanasi, near Gai Ghat.
• It is an art form from Persia and involves colouring the surface of metals by fusing different colours.
• This art was brought to the city of Varanasi by Persian enamellists during the Mughal era around the early 17th century.
• The word 'mina' is the feminine form of the Persian word 'Minoo' and means 'heaven'.
• It refers to the azure colour of heaven.
• In Varanasi, it is practiced on jewellery and home decor items.
• Minakari work uses very simple tools like salai (an etching tool), kiln, metal palette, mortar and pestle, kalam (a tool used to apply enamel), brass dye, small scrubbing brush, forceps and takala (a needle-like tool to apply colours).
• This craft can be found popularly in three forms:
  • Ek Rang Khula Meena in which only gold outlines are exposed and a single transparent colour is used.
  • Panch Rangi Meena in which the five colours of red, white, green, light blue and dark blue are used
  • Gulabi Meena in which pink is the dominant colour.
• Varanasi is highly popular for Gulabi Minakari.
• Recently, the Uttar Pradesh state government has decided to gift GI-tagged Gulabi meenakari handicrafts for the visiting delegates from G20 nations.

Palkhi Festival

• Palkhi is a 1000 — year old tradition which was started by some saints of Maharashtra (India) and is still continued by their followers called varkaris (people who follow a vari, a fundamental ritual).
• It is an annual pilgrimage (yatra) to Pandharpur – the seat of the Hindu god Vithoba in Maharashtra, in honour of the deity.
• Background:
  • Every saint, right from Sant Dnyaneshwar to Sant Tukaram, was following the Vari tradition.
  • In the year 1685, Narayan Baba, the youngest son of Tukaram was a man of innovative spirit and decided to bring about a change in the dindi-wari tradition by introducing the Palkhi, which is a sign of social respect. 
  • He put the silver padukas (footsteps) of Tukaram in the Palkhi and proceeded with his dindi to Alandi where he put the padukas of Dnyaneshwar in the same Palkhi.
  • This tradition of twin Palkhis went on every year, but in 1830 there were some disputes in the family of Tukaram, concerned with rights and privileges.
  • Following this, some thoughtful persons decided to break-up the tradition of twin Palkhis and organise here after, two separate Palkhis Tukaram Palkhi from Dehu (Pune) and the Dnyaneshwar Palkhi from Alandi (Pune).
  • From that time till date, both the Palkhis meet in Pune for a brief halt and then diverge at Hadapsar to meet again at Wakhri, a village nearby to Pandharpur.
• Journey:
  • They walk with palkhis (chariots) carrying paduka (sandals) of various saints – most notably Dnyaneshwar and Tukaram.
  • Dnyaneshwar's palakhi leaves from Alandi, while Tukaram's begins at Dehu, both in Pune district of Maharashtra.
  • The Palkhi starts in the month of Jyeshth (June), and the whole process lasts a total of 22 days. 
  • Every year on the eleventh day of the first half of the month of Ashadh, the Palkhi reaches Pandharpur. 
  • Upon reaching Pandharpur on Ashadi Ekadashi, these devotees take a holy dip in the sacred Chandrabhaga River/Bhima River before proceeding to visit the Vitthal temple.

Gilgit Manuscripts

• Recently, the Minister of State for Culture inaugurated an exhibition under the Azadi Ka Amrit Mahotsav (AKAM) titled “Hamari Bhasha, Hamari Virasat” and mentioned about Gilgit Manuscripts to celebrate 75th International Archives Day at National Archives of India, New Delhi.
• It was written between the 5″ -6″ centuries CE, which is the oldest surviving manuscript collection in India.
• It was written on the birch bark folios documents written on pieces of inner layer of the bark of birch trees were found in Kashmir region.
• It contains both canonical and non-canonical Jain and Buddhist works that throw light on the evolution of many religious-philosophical literature.

Neolithic Age

• A celt, belonging to the neolithic period, was recently discovered in Poothinatham village in Tamil Nadu.
• Neolithic, also called New Stone Age, is the final stage of cultural evolution or technological development among prehistoric humans.
• The Neolithic stage of development was attained during the Holocene Epoch (the last 11,700 years of Earth’s history).
• The starting point of the Neolithic is generally thought to have occurred sometime about 10,000 BCE.
• The Neolithic followed the Paleolithic Period, or the age of chipped-stone tools, and preceded the Bronze Age, or the early period of metal tools.
• The Neolithic Revolution started in the Fertile Crescent, a region of the Middle East where humans first took up farming. 
• The term Neolithic is most frequently used in connection with agriculture, which is the time when cereal cultivation was introduced.
• It was characterized by stone tools shaped by polishing or grinding, dependence on domesticated plants or animals, settlement in permanent villages, and the appearance of such crafts as pottery and weaving. 
• The houses were built of mud and reed and rectangular or circular shapes.
• Some of the important Neolithic sites in India include Mehrgarh, the oldest Neolithic site in the province of Pakistan called Balochistan, Burzahom in Kashmir, Chiron in Bihar and Uttar in Andhra Pradesh, Edakkal caves in Kerala.

Neanderthals

• Recent scientific findings have revealed that Neanderthal genes compose 1 to 4 per cent of the genome of modern-day humans whose ancestors moved out of Africa.
• Neanderthals are our closest extinct human relative.
• Species: Homo neanderthalensis
• They lived throughout Europe and parts of Asia from about 400,000 until about 40,000 years ago.
• Neanderthals co-existed with modern humans for long periods of time before eventually becoming extinct.
• Some defining features of their skulls include the large middle part of the face, angled cheek bones, and a huge nose for humidifying and warming cold, dry air. 
• Their bodies were shorter and stockier than modern humans, another adaptation to living in cold environments.
• But their brains were just as large as modern humans and often larger – proportional to their brawnier bodies.
• Their bones reveal that they were extremely muscular and strong, but led hard lives, suffering frequent injuries.
• Neanderthals made and used a diverse set of sophisticated tools, controlled fire, lived in shelters, made and wore clothing, were skilled hunters of large animals and also ate plant foods, and occasionally made symbolic or ornamental objects. 
• Fossil evidence suggests that Neanderthals, like early humans, made an assortment of sophisticated tools from stone and bones. These included small blades, hand axe and scrapers used to remove flesh and fat from animal skin.
• There is evidence that Neanderthals deliberately buried their dead and occasionally even marked their graves with offerings, such as flowers. 

Malcha Mahal

• It is a Tughlaq-era hunting lodge, built by Feroz Shah Tughlaq in the 14th century.
• It is located in the Chanakyapuri area of New Delhi.
• It came to be known as Wilayat Mahal after Begum Wilayat Mahal of Awadh, who was reportedly given the place by the government of India in May 1985.
• For over three decades, it served as home to the family of Begum Wilayat Mahal, claiming to be descendants of the Nawab of Awadh, whose last member, ‘Prince’ Ali Raza, died in 2017.
• Feroz Shah Tughlaq:
  • Born in 1309, Firoz Shah Tughlaq was the third ruler of the Tughlaq dynasty that ruled over Delhi from 1320 to 1412 AD.
  • He was in power from 1351 to 1388 AD.
  • He ascended the throne after the death of his cousin Muhammad-bin Tughlaq (ruled from 1324 to 1351 AD).
  • His succession was faced with many rebellions, and due to widespread unrest, his realm was much smaller than Muhammad’s.
  • During his rule, Firoz Shah worked to improve the infrastructure of the empire. He did this by building canals, rest- houses and hospitals, creating and refurbishing reservoirs and digging wells. 
  • He also founded several cities around Delhi, including Jaunpur, Firozpur, Hissar, Firozabad and Fatehabad.
  • He also repaired the Qutub Minar, which had been damaged by an earthquake.
  • He wrote his own autobiography called the ‘Futuhat-e-Firozshahi’.
  • Firoz Shah was indiscriminately benevolent and lenient as a ruler. He refused to re-conquer provinces that had broken away from Muhammad’s annexation.
  • He stopped all kinds of harsh punishments, such as cutting off hands, and lowered the land taxes that Muhammad had raised.
  • He sought advice from the Ulemas and ruled as per the Shariat. He imposed a number of taxes like the Kharaj, Zakat, Kham and Jaziya, which were levied on the non-Muslim subjects. He also imposed an irrigation tax after getting it sanctioned from the Ulema.
  • He provided the principle of inheritance to the armed forces, where the officers were permitted to rest and send their children into the army in their place.
  • He established the Diwan-i-Khairat — office for charity.
  • He established the Diwan-i-Bundagan — department of slaves.
  • He established Sarais (rest house) for the benefits of merchants and other travelers.
  • He adopted the Iqtadari framework.

Al-Hakim Mosque

• The Indian Prime Minister will visit the 11th Century Al-Hakim mosque, restored with the help of the Dawoodi Bohra community, during his first visit to Egypt.
• It is a historical mosque located in Cairo, Egypt.
• It is named after Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah (985–1021 AD), the sixth Fatimid caliph.
• The mosque was originally built by the Fatimid vizier Gawhar Al-Siqilli, but was incorporated into the extended fortifications built by Badr al-Jamali at the end of the 11th century AD.
• The mosque was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1979.
• The mosque is constructed of brick with stone facades and minarets.
• The plan of the mosque consists of a triangle with four arcades centering a courtyard. Two minarets flank either side of the façade. 
• Originally built outside Cairo’s northern wall, the mosque was incorporated within the city in 1087, transforming its own northern wall and minarets into an integral part of the fortifications. 
• The main entrance lies on the western facade of the mosque and is monumental in size and design. It is one of the oldest architectural examples of projecting entrances.
• Dawoodi Bohra Community:
  • Dawoodi Bohra community is a sect within Shia Islam known for trading and business acumen.
  • India is known to have around 500,000 Bohras, including the diasporas spread across the world.
  • A large number of the Dawoodi Bohra population reside in India, Yemen, Pakistan and East Africa. 

Mesolithic Rock Painting

• Recently, a Mesolithic period rock painting depicting a person tilling a piece of land has been found in Orvakallu village in Guntur district, Andhra Pradesh.
• The paintings were made with “natural white kaolin and red ochre pigments”, 
• Ochre is a pigment composed of clay, sand, and ferric oxide.
• Kaolinite is a soft, earthy, and usually white mineral produced by the chemical weathering of aluminium silicate minerals like feldspar.
• These paintings throw light on aspects of the social life and culture of the people who lived in the area.
• One of the paintings depicted a man catching a wild goat with his left hand while wielding a hook-like implement to control it.
• Another showed two couples standing with their hands raised while a child stood behind them.
• Mesolithic Period:
  • It is also called Middle Stone Age which existed between the Paleolithic (Old Stone Age) and the Neolithic (New Stone Age).
  • Timeframe: This period is generally considered to have occurred between approximately 12,000-10,000 years ago
  • Lifestyle: During the Mesolithic period, human societies were predominantly hunter-gatherer communities.
  • People relied on hunting, fishing, and gathering wild plant resources for their sustenance.
  • Stone tools found during this period are generally tiny, and are called microliths.
  • Microliths were probably stuck onto handles of bone or wood to make tools such as saws and sickles.
  • At the same time, older varieties of tools continued to be in use.

Statue of Unity

• It was created as a tribute to the ‘Iron Man of India’, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel.
• Location: It is Located in Gujarat, by the banks of River Narmada on the River Island of Sadhu Bet overlooking the Narmada Dam.
• Height: The statue, 182-metre tall, is described as the world’s tallest  as it exceeds the height of China’s Spring Temple Buddha by 177 feet.
• The statue was built by Indian construction major Larsen & Toubro (L&T) and designed by Padma Bhushan-winning sculptor Ram V Sutar.
• Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel:
  • He was an Indian barrister and statesman, one of the leaders of the Indian National Congress during the struggle for Indian independence.
  • He was born on 31st October 1875, in Nadiad, Gujarat.
  • Patel first made his mark in 1918, when he planned mass campaigns of peasants, farmers, and landowners of Kaira, Gujarat, against the decision of the Bombay government to collect the full annual revenue taxes despite crop failures caused by heavy rains.
  • He was so influenced by Gandhiji's ideas that in the year 1920, in the non-cooperation movement, he adopted indigenous Khadi items and started boycotting foreign clothes.
  • Patel led the Satyagraha movement in Nagpur in 1923 against the British law of banning the hoisting of the Indian Flag.
  • In 1928 Patel successfully led the landowners of Bardoli in their resistance against increased taxes.
  • His efficient leadership of the Bardoli campaign earned him the title of sardar (“leader”).
  • He was appointed as the first Deputy Prime Minister and Home Minister of India from 1947 to 1950.
  • He is highly credited for the peaceful integration of the princely Indian states into the Indian Union and the political unification of India.

Ancient Mayan City

• Recently, a previously unknown ancient Mayan city has been discovered in the jungles of southern Mexico by anthropologists.
• It is located in the Balamku ecological reserve on the country's Yucatan Peninsula.
• This city has been named Ocomtun – meaning “stone column” in the Yucatec Maya language.
• This would have been an important centre for the peninsula's central lowland region between 250 and 1000 AD.
• The city includes large pyramid-like buildings, stone columns, three plazas with “imposing buildings” and other structures arranged in almost-concentric circles.
• It has a core area located on high ground surrounded by extensive wetlands.
• Mayan Civilization:
  • The Maya are probably the best-known of the classical civilizations of Mesoamerica.
  • Originating in the Yucatán peninsula around 2600 B.C., they rose to prominence around A.D. 250 in present-day southern Mexico, Guatemala, northern Belize and western Honduras.
  • Building on the inherited inventions and ideas of earlier civilizations, the Maya developed astronomy, calendrical systems and hieroglyphic writing.
  • The Maya were noted as well for elaborate and highly decorated ceremonial architecture, including temple pyramids, palaces and observatories, all built without metal tools.
  • They were also skilled farmers, clearing large sections of tropical rainforest and, where groundwater was scarce, building sizable underground reservoirs for the storage of rainwater.

Ambubachi Mela

• It is an annual Hindu fair held at the historic Kamakhya Temple.
• It is celebrated during the monsoon season that happens to fall during the Assamese month Ahaar, around the middle of June.
• It is the celebration of the yearly menstruation course of goddess Maa Kamakhya.
• This mela is also known as Ameti or Tantric fertility festival since it is closely associated with Tantric Shakti cult prevalent in eastern parts of India.
• Kamakhya Temple:
  • It is situated on Nilachal Hill and adjoining the southern bank of the Brahmaputra River in Guwahati,
  • It is one of the most revered centres of Tantric practices.
  • It is regarded as one of the oldest of the 51 Shakti Peethas in India.
  • It had been modelled out of a combination of two different styles namely, the traditional nagara or North Indian and Saracenic or Mughal style of architecture.
  • This unusual combination has been named the Nilachala Style of Architecture.
  • This is the only temple of Assam having a fully developed ground plan.
  • It consists of five chambers, garbhagriha or sanctuary, antarala or vestibule, Jagan Mohan or principal chamber, bhogmandir or ritual chamber and natmandir or opera hall for performing traditional dance and music associated with sukti temples.
  • It is interesting to note that the superstructure of each of the above chambers exhibits different architectural features.
  • While the main temple contains a modified Saracenic dome, the antarala carries a two-roofed design, the bhogmandir (also called pancharatna) with five domes similar in appearance to the main temple and the natmandir having a shell-roof with apsidal end similar to some of the impermanent namghars or prayer halls found in Assam.

Kedarnath Temple

• It is a Hindu temple dedicated to Shiva. 
• It is located at an height of 3,584 meters on the Garhwal Himalayan range near the Mandakini river, in the Rudraprayag District of Uttarakhand.
• Kedarnath forms one of the four sites of the Chota Char Dham Pilgrimage circuit, and is one of the 12 Jyotirlingas of Lord Shiva in India.
• Who build it? It is said that the Pandavas constructed the Kedarnath Temple which was later reconstructed by Adi Shankaracharya in the 8th century A.D. 
• It has exquisite architecture and is built of extremely large but evenly shaped grey stone slabs.
• The stone slabs are interlocked with each other with the use of iron clamps.
• No mortar has been used in the construction of the temple.
• There is a conical rock structure inside the Kedarnath temple that is worshipped as the Sadashiva form of Shiva.
• A “Garba Griha” for worship and a Mandap for pilgrims is placed inside the temple.
• Chota Char Dham Yatra:
  • It refers to the journey up the mountains to four sacred temples in the North Indian state of Uttarakhand.
  • The four temples that comprise Chota Char Dham are Yamunotri Dham, Gangotri Dham, Badrinath Dham and Kedarnath Dham.
• Jyotirlingas:
  • A Jyotirlinga is a shrine where Lord Shiva is worshipped in the form of a Jyotirlingam.
  • There are currently 12 main Jyotirlingas in India.
  • The 12 Jyotirlinga temples in India take the name of the presiding deity. Each considered a different manifestation of Lord Shiva. 
  • 12 Jyotirlingas in India are:
    • Somnath Jyotirlinga in Gir, Gujarat
    • Mallikarjuna Jyotirlinga in Srisailam, Andhra Pradesh
    • Mahakaleshwar Jyotirlinga in Ujjain, Madhya Pradesh
    • Omkareshwar Jyotirlinga in Khandwa, Madhya Pradesh
    • Baidyanath Jyotirlinga in Deoghar, Jharkhand
    • Bhimashankar Jyotirlinga in Maharashtra
    • Ramanathaswamy Jyotirlinga in Rameshwaram, Tamil Nadu
    • Nageshwar Jyotirlinga in Dwarka, Gujarat
    • Kashi Vishwanath Jyotirlinga in Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh
    • Trimbakeshwar Jyotirlinga in Nasik, Maharashtra
    • Kedarnath Jyotirlinga in Rudraprayag, Uttarakhand
    • Ghrishneshwar Jyotirlinga in Aurangabad, Maharashtra

Great Pyramid of Giza

• Indian Prime Minister recently visited the Great Pyramid of Giza during his maiden State visit to Egypt.
• The Great Pyramid of Giza, also called Great Pyramid and Great Pyramid of Khufu, is an  ancient Egyptian pyramid that is the largest of the three Pyramids of Giza.
• Location: It is located on the Giza plateau on the west bank of the Nile River near the modern city of Cairo in Egypt.
• It was built by Khufu (Cheops), the second king of Egypt’s 4th dynasty (c. 2575–c. 2465 BCE), and was completed about 2560 BCE. 
• The pyramid was first excavated using modern techniques and scientific analysis in 1880 by Sir William Matthew Flinders Petrie (l.1853-1942), the British archaeologist.
• It is the largest Egyptian pyramid which rises to a height of 479 feet (146 metres) with a base of 754 feet (230 metres) and is comprised of over two million blocks of stone.
• The pyramid’s sides rise at an angle of 51.87° and are accurately oriented to the four cardinal points of the compass.
• The Great Pyramid’s core is made of yellowish limestone blocks, and the inner passages are of finer light-coloured limestone.
• The interior burial chamber is built of huge blocks of granite.

Kharchi Puja

• It is one of the main festivals of Tripura.
• It is performed during the months of July-August on the eighth day of the new moon.
• The meaning of Kharchi can be understood by splitting the word into two Tripuri words “Khar” or Kharta meaning sin and “Chi” or si meaning cleaning. Hence it signifies the cleansing of our sins. 
• It occurs during the month of ‘Ashad’ on the ‘Shukla Ashtami’ day.
• The fourteen Gods are worshipped by the Royal priest ‘Chantai.
• It lasts for seven days and it takes place at old Agartala in the Fourteen Gods temple known as the ‘Chaturdasha Devata’ temple premises.
• The Kharchi Puja deities do not have a full body; they have only heads which are worshipped.
• On the day of the puja, the fourteen Gods are taken from the temple to the river Saidra by the Chantai members and given bathe with the holy river water, then carried back to the temple. 
• This festival's customs are completely related to the authentic Tripuri traditions.

Tam Pà Ling Cave

• Recently, a team of researchers have been excavating at Tam Pà Ling caves for many years, and found more and more evidence of Homo sapiens of earlier times.
• It revealed that humans were present in the vicinity of Tam Pà Ling Cave for roughly 56,000 years.
• It also confirmed that, far from reflecting a rapid dump of sediments, the site contains sediments that accumulated steadily over some 86,000 years.
• The age of the lowest fossil, a fragment of a leg bone found seven metres deep, suggests modern humans arrived in this region between 86,000 and 68,000 years ago.
• Even researchers found a tooth some 150,000 years old belonging to a Denisovan.
• This suggests the site may lie on a previously used dispersal route among hominins.
• Tam Pà Ling Cave:
  • It is a sloping cave situated high in the Annamite mountain range in Northern Laos. 
  • The stratigraphy of the site indicates formation by periodic slopewash deposition from the muddy slope at the entrance of the cave.
• Denisovans:
  • They are extinct human relatives otherwise known only from remains found in Siberia and Tibet.
  • They lived lakhs of years ago, coexisting with Neanderthals in some regions, and interbreeding with early modern humans in some cases. 
  • They were first identified as a separate species in 2010, following the discovery of a fragment of a finger bone and two teeth, dating back to about 40,000 years ago, in the Denisovan Cave in Siberia.

Ol Chiki Script

• Recently, the Prime Minister of India for saluting the immortal tribal revolutionaries on Hul Diwas used the Ol Chiki script of Santhali language.
• It was created in 1925 by Raghunath Murmu (1905-1982), writer and teacher from what is Mayurbhanj State (now part of Odisha) in India as a way to write Santali a Munda language.
• Ol Chiki is also known as Ol Cemet', Ol Ciki, Ol or the Santali alphabet.
• It was created as a way to promote Santali culture.
• The script was first publicized in 1939 at the Mayurbhanj State exhibition.
• Murmu published over 150 books in Santali in the Ol Chiki script, including novels, poetry, drama, grammars, dictionaries and other information about the language and script.
• Santali is also written with the Latin, Odia, Bengali and Devanagari alphabets.
• Santhali language is spoken mainly in Jharkhand and West Bengal states in northern India, and also in northwestern Bangladesh, eastern Nepal and Bhutan.
• Hul Diwas:
  • The Santal rebellion or ‘Hul’ – literally, revolution – began in 1855 two years before the uprising of 1857.
  • It was an “organised war against colonialism” led by the Santals, standing against the myriad forms of economic oppression
  • It was led by two brothers Sidhu and Kanhu.
  • It saw the participation of as many as 32 castes and communities rallying behind them.

Swami Vivekananda

• Swami Vivekananda (1863 – 1902), born Narendranath Datta,was a Hindu monk and one of the most celebrated spiritual leaders of India. 
• He was the foremost disciple of Sri Ramakrishna Paramhamsa  and a world spokesperson for Vedanta.
• He was hailed as a Dhyana Sidha, a meditation expert, by his guru Ramakrishna Paramhamsa.
• He attempted to combine Indian spirituality with Western material progress, maintaining that the two supplemented and complemented one another. 
• He believed that the path to self-purification is through helping others. He encouraged people to engage in selfless service and to work towards the betterment of society.
• Through his teachings on the four yogas, the harmony of religions, divinity of the soul, and serving humanity as God, Vivekananda gave spiritual aspirants paths to that realization.
• Vivekananda represented Hinduism at the 1893 World’s Parliament of Religions convened during the World’s Columbian Exposition in Chicago.
• After his first visit to the West, Swami Vivekananda went back to India and founded the Ramakrishna Order at Belur outside of Kolkata in 1897.
• July 4 is the death anniversary of Swami Vivekananda, recognised as one of the greatest spiritual leaders.
• Ramakrishna Order:
  • The Ramakrishna Order, with headquarters in Kolkata, is one of the largest and most respected religious orders in India today.
  • The Order was inspired by the great Bengali saint, Sri Ramakrishna. 
  • Shortly before his death in 1886, Ramakrishna encouraged his young disciples to formally renounce the world by giving them the ochre cloth of renunciation.
  • He entrusted the care of these young men to his foremost disciple, Swami Vivekananda, who later, in 1897, founded the Ramakrishna Order.
  • The Ramakrishna Order was formed along two parallel lines: The Ramakrishna Math, which is primarily dedicated to spiritual development, and the Ramakrishna Mission, which is dedicated to social service.

Gutti Koya Tribe

• Gutti Koya tribes people erect stone memorials in the event of death of their three most important service providers namely physician, priest and village leader.
• The Koya population is concentrated in Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh and Odisha.
• They speak Koya, which is a Dravidian language.
• The most important fair celebrated by Koyas is the Sammakka Saralamma Jatra once in two years on full moon day of the Magha Masam (January or February) at Medaram village in Mulug taluk of Warangal district.
• They practice Podu form of shifting cultivation, as practiced by various tribal groups in forest areas has for long been an economic survival versus environmental sustenance issue.
• The held ST status in Chattisgarh but they were not granted ST status in their migrated states such as Telangana.
• They earn a living through animal husbandry and minor forest produce.

Kanwar Yatra

• It is an annual Hindu pilgrimage observed every year by Lord Shiva devotees.
• It usually starts in the month of July or August, commonly known as the month of Sawan, according to the Hindu calendar. 
• The yatra derives its name from the word ‘kanwar’, meaning a bamboo pole to which containers of holy water are tied at opposite ends.
• Millions of devotees called Kanwariyas or kriyas travel to pilgrimage places like Haridwar, Gaumukh, Gangotri in Uttarakhand, Sultanganj in Bihar, Prayagraj, Ayodhya and Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh, and return by carrying Ganga water in kanwars to seek the blessings of Shiva.
• The water is then offered to Shiva temples, including the 13 Jyotirlingas across India. The ritual is known as Jal Abhishek.
• During the whole journey, Kanwars have to make sure that the earthen pots do not touch the ground.
• While carrying the water, devotees walk barefoot, and some complete the pilgrimage by lying flat on the ground.
• They are clad in saffron clothing while undertaking the journey. Many observe fasts during the pilgrimage and restrict consumption of food, water and salt.

Kui Language

• The Odisha Cabinet recently recommended a proposal for inclusion of ‘Kui’ language in the 8th Schedule of the Indian Constitution.
• Kui (also known as Kandh, Khondi, Khond, Khondo), is a South-Eastern Dravidian language spoken by the Kandha community. 
• It is primarily spoken in the state of Odisha. 
• It is closely related to other languages in the Dravidian family, such as Gondi and Kuvi. It was also referred to as the Kuinga language during the historical period.
• With 941,988 registered native speakers, it figures at rank 29 in the 1991 Indian census.
• Kui is traditionally written using the Odia script, which is also used for writing the Odia language. 
• 8th Schedule of the Indian Constitution:
  • It lists the official languages of India. 
  • Although there are hundreds of languages spoken across the country, the eighth schedule recognises a total of 22 languages as the official languages. 
  • The 22 languages now included in the eighth section of the Constitution are, Manipuri, Maithili, Kashmiri, Hindi, Kannada, Gujarati, Konkani, Malayalam, Assamese, Marathi, Nepali, Bengali, Punjabi, Sanskrit, Sindhi, Telugu, Tamil, Odia, Urdu, Bodo, Dogri, and Santhali.
  • Fourteen of these languages were originally listed in the Constitution. Sindhi was introduced in 1967, Konkani, Manipuri, and Nepali in 1992, and Santali, Dogri, Maithili, and Bodo by the 92nd Amendment Act of 2003.

Lambani Embroidery Patches

• The Lambani embroidery is an intricate form of textile embellishment characterized by colourful threads, mirror-work and stitch patterns.
• It is practiced in several villages of Karnataka such as Sandur, Keri Tanda, Mariyammanahalli, Kadirampur etc.
• The Lambani craft tradition involves stitching together small pieces of discarded fabric to create a beautiful fabric. 
• This embroidery had also found a place in the list of products with Geographic Indication (GI) tag in the country.
• Recently, as part of the third G20 culture working group (CWG) meeting in Hampi, a Guinness world record was created for the ‘largest display of Lambani items.
• Over 450 women artisans and cultural practitioners from Lambani community inhabiting Karnataka came together to create embroidered patches with Sandur Lambani embroidery, creating 1,755 patchwork pieces.
• Lambani People:
  • The Lambanis are also known as Banjaras and most of them are found in Telangana, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka states in South India.
  • This community settled across the country with different names, have permanently abandoned their nomadic lifestyle and settled in their settlements called Tandas.
  • They speak Gor Boli also called Lambadi which belongs to the Indo-Aryan Group of Languages. Lambadi has no script.
  • They celebrate the festival of Teej during Shravanam (in the month of august). In this festival young unmarried Banjara girls pray for a good groom.
  • Fire dance and Chari are the traditional dance forms of the banjara people.

Namda Art

• The Namda craft of Kashmir is being successfully revived under a Skill India’s Pilot Project as part of the Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana (PMKVY), with nearly 2,200 candidates from across six districts of the state, receiving training in the dying art form.
• It is said to have begun in the 16th century when Mughal Emperor Akbar wanted to get a covering for his horses to protect them from the cold.
• It was introduced by a Sufi saint named Shah-e-Hamdan to Kashmiris.
• Namda is a type of traditional Kashmiri felted carpet that is created using sheep wool and has colourful hand embroidery.
• The distinct feature of this Kashmiri craft is that wool is felted and not woven.
• Unique themes and floral patterns provide the themes for these masterpieces and flowers and leaves, buds and fruits are the essence of the designs.
• It is practised as a craft in several cultures, especially in the countries throughout Asia, viz. Iran, Afghanistan and India.

Hampi

• Traditionally known as Pampakshetra of Kishkindha, Hampi is located in central Karnataka on the banks of the Tungabhadra River.
• t is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
• It is renowned for its historical and archaeological significance, as it was once the capital of the Vijayanagara Empire, one of the greatest Hindu empires in South India, which thrived from the 14th to the 16th century.
• The Tungabhadra River flows through Hampi.
• The site boasts numerous grand temples, palaces, marketplaces, and other structures.
• Some of the prominent landmarks include the Virupaksha Temple, Vittala Temple, Lotus Mahal, Queen's Bath, and Elephant Stables.
• Temples of this city are noted for their large dimensions, florid ornamentation, bold and delicate carvings, stately pillars, magnificent pavilions and a great wealth of iconographic and traditional depictions which include subjects from the Ramayana and the Mahabharata.
• Vittala Temple Complex:
  • It is an iconic structure within Hampi, known for its extraordinary architecture and the famous stone chariot.
  • It dates back to the 15th century. It was built during the reign of King Devaraya II (1422 – 1446 A.D.), one of the rulers of the Vijayanagara Empire.
  • Several portions of the temple were expanded and enhanced during the reign of Krishnadevaraya (1509 – 1529 A.D.), the most famous ruler of the Vijayanagara dynasty.
  • It is also known as Shri Vijaya Vitthala Temple. It is dedicated to Lord Vitthala, an incarnation of Lord Vishnu.
  • It is built in the Dravidian style of architecture. It has traits and features that are characteristic of typical south Indian temple architecture.
  • It is believed that the main shrine of the temple originally had one enclosed Mantapa. An open Mantapa was added to it in the year 1554 A.D.
  • The temple complex is a sprawling area that is surrounded by high compound walls and three towering gateways.
  • The temple complex has many halls, shrines and pavilions located inside it. Each of these structures is made of stone.

Veer Savarkar

• Born in 1883 near Nasik in Maharashtra, Vinayak Damodar Savarkar was popularly called Veer Savarkar.
• He was the first to acknowledge the mutiny of 1857 as the first struggle for Independence and wrote the book 'The History of the War of Indian Independence'.
• He was a passionate promoter of Hindutva since childhood.
• He was sentenced to 50 years in the cellular jail of Andamans, also known as Kala Pani, for revolting against the Morley-Minto reforms (Indian Councils Act 1909) in 1911.
• After his release from jail, he worked on the abolishment of untouchability in Ratnagiri.
• Serving as the president of the Hindu Mahasabha political party, he opposed the Quit India movement in 1942.
• He founded the organizations Abhinav Bharat Society and Free India Society.
• He was a critic of the Indian National Congress and its acceptance of India's partition.
• He was also a critic of Mahatma Gandhi and called him a 'hypocrite'.

Rudragiri Hillock

• Recently, a fascinating combination of prehistoric rock paintings from the Mesolithic period and exquisite artwork from the Kakatiya dynasty were discovered in the Rudragiri hillock.
• Rudragiri Hillock is located in Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh.
• It is nestled amidst the Eastern Ghats, features five naturally formed rock shelters at its foothills, facing westward. 
• These shelters served as living quarters for people during the Mesolithic age around 5000 B.C and they bear witness to the luminous rock paintings of that era.
• Two natural caves at the southern end of the hillock also exhibit exceptional murals from the renowned Kakatiya kingdom.
• Key findings:
  • The first cave presents a narrative mural portraying the intense battle between the Vanara brothers, Vali and Sugriva. Both figures stand on the battlefield wielding maces, their faces displaying fierce determination. Rama, positioned behind Sugriva, shoots arrows at Vali.
  • A Ramayana fresco depicting Hanuman lifting the Sanjeevani hill with his right hand painted A conch and fire altars can be seen to his right and another prehistoric painting to the left.
  • In the middle cave, a grand sketch of Hanuman, accompanied by sacred symbols of the conch (Sankha) and the fire altar (Yagna Vedi), captures visitors’ attention. Hanuman is depicted carrying the Sanjivani hill in his right hand, symbolising his mission to save Lakshmana’s life.
  • The third cave houses the prehistoric rock paintings from the Mesolithic era.
  • Interestingly, the Kakatiya artist chose the same rock shelter to superimpose the elegant figure of Hanuman, who is portrayed in a unique ‘Anjali’ posture, folding his hands in a divine offering.
  • The illustrious Ganapati Deva Maharaja (1199-1262 AD), the founder of Muppavaram temple and a prominent figure of the Kakatiya dynasty, likely patronised the rich ancient mural heritage found at Rudragiri.
• Mesolithic period:
  • It is also called Middle Stone Age which existed between the Paleolithic (Old Stone Age) and the Neolithic (New Stone Age).
  • This period is generally considered to have occurred between approximately 12,000-10,000 years ago
  • During the Mesolithic period, human societies were predominantly hunter-gatherer communities.

Copper Age

• Recently, an analysis of ancient human genomic data suggests that Copper Age farmers and steppe pastoralists may have interacted 1,000 years earlier than previously thought.
• Previous analyses of ancient genomic data have suggested that two major genetic turnover events occurred in Western Eurasia;
• One associated with the spread of farming around 7,000-6,000 BC and a second resulting from the expansion of pastoralist groups from the Eurasian steppe starting around 3,300 BC.
• The period between these two events, the Copper Age, was characterized by a new economy based on metallurgy, wheel and wagon transportation, and horse domestication.
• However, what happened between the demise of Copper Age settlements (around 4,250 BC) and the expansion of pastoralists is not well understood.
• The recent study revealed that early contact and admixture between Copper Age farming groups from south-eastern Europe and Neolithic groups from the steppe zone in today’s southern Ukraine, possibly starting in the 5,500 BC when settlement densities shifted further north.
• The early admixture during the Neolithic appears to be local to the NW Black Sea region of the fourth millennium BC and did not affect the hinterland in southeastern Europe. 
• Copper Age:
  • The Chalcolithic period, also known as the Copper Age.
  • It describes a transitional period in human prehistory between the Neolithic period (New Stone Age) and the Bronze Age.
  • It is characterized by the use of both stone tools and the beginning of metalworking, specifically the utilization of copper.
  • One of the defining characteristics of this period is the simultaneous use of stone tools and early metal objects, primarily copper.
  • In India, it spanned around 2000 BC to 700 BC.
  • This culture was mainly seen in the Pre-Harappan phase, but at many places it extended to the Post-Harappan phase too.
  • The people were mostly rural and lived near hills and rivers.
  • The Chalcolithic culture corresponds to the farming communities, namely Kayatha, Ahar or Banas, Malwa, and Jorwe.
  • The people of this age started doing animal husbandry and agriculture. 
  • Apart from wheat, rice, they used to grow pulse crops like millet, lentil, urad and moong etc.

Safdarjung Tomb

• Safdarjung Tomb is the last garden tomb constructed in the late Mughal Empire Style. 
• It is located at the Intersection of Safdarjung Road and Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi, India.
• It was built in 1753- 54 as a mausoleum of Safdarjung, the viceroy of Awadh under the Mughal Emperor, Mohammed Shah. It was built by his son, Nawab Shujaud Daula.
• It is also known as ‘Safdarjung ka Maqbara,’ the tomb is built on a square plan and has a central dome and is made of marble and sandstone.
• The dome is surrounded by four smaller domes and four minarets.
• The exterior of the tomb is decorated with intricate latticework and calligraphy.
• The interior of the tomb is decorated with marble and gold leaf.
• The tomb is surrounded by lush green gardens. The garden is in the Mughal charbagh garden style, and is a smaller version of the garden of Humayun Tomb.
• Safdarjung:
  • Safdarjung (1708 – 5 October 1754), whose full name was Mirza Muqim Abul Mansur Khan, was a major figure in the Mughal court during the declining years of the Mughal Empire.
  • He became the second Nawab of Awadh when he succeeded Saadat Ali Khan I (his maternal uncle and father-in-law) in 1739.
  • In 1739, Safdarjung was appointed the Prime Minister of the Mughal Empire by Emperor Muhammad Shah.
  • He served as Prime Minister for five years, during which time he helped to stabilize the Mughal Empire and to improve its relations with other powers in the region.
  • After his term as Prime Minister, Safdarjung returned to Awadh, where he ruled as Nawab for the next 15 years.
  • He was a capable ruler, and he helped to make Awadh one of the most prosperous provinces in the Mughal Empire.
  • He built many mosques, madrasas, and other public buildings in Awadh, and he also supported the arts of music, poetry, and painting.
  • He died in 1754, and he was buried in Safdarjung Tomb, Delhi.

Kargil Vijay Diwas

• It is celebrated on July 26 every year. 
• The day commemorates the victory of the Indian armed forces in the Kargil War fought against Pakistan.
• The day is observed to pay tribute and honour the bravery and sacrifice of the soldiers in the war of 1999.
• The year 2023 marks the 24th anniversary of Kargil Vijay Diwas.
• Kargil War was fought between India and Pakistan at the Line of Control (LoC) in the Kargil district of Jammu and Kashmir.

UNESCO’s Asia Pacific Cultural Heritage Award

• Recently, the heritage Byculla Railway station which has been restored to its original glory, received the UNESCO award.
• Byculla Railway station was originally built in 1853.
• The first train of the country passed through Byculla station almost one-and-a-half centuries ago.
• It has been restored to its original Gothic, heritage, architectural glory.
• UNESCO’s Asia Pacific Cultural Heritage Award:
  • The UNESCO Asia-Pacific Awards for Cultural Heritage Conservation is supported by a partnership between UNESCO and Ng Teng Fong Charitable Foundation since 2021.
  • UNESCO introduced the new category, ‘Special Recognition for Sustainable Development’, in 2020, together with an updated set of Awards Criteria.
  • It is to acknowledge the role and contribution of cultural heritage to sustainable development within the broader framework of the UN 2030 Agenda.
  • Since 2000, UNESCO Asia-Pacific Awards for Cultural Heritage Conservation have been recognizing the achievement of the private sector and public-private initiatives in successfully conserving or restoring structures, places and properties of heritage value in the region.

World Cities Culture Forum

• Recently, Bengaluru has become the first Indian city to become part of the World Cities Culture Forum (WCCF).
• World Cities Culture Forum was founded in 2012 by Justine Simons OBE, London’s Deputy Mayor for Culture & the Creative Industries.
• It is a global network of cities that share research and intelligence, and explore the role of culture in future prosperity.
• The network currently has 40 cities spanning six continents. 
• Bengaluru being the latest addition is set to join the league of cities like New York, London, Paris, Tokyo and Dubai among others.
• World cities culture summit hosted on a rotating basis by city partners, an unprecedented gathering of city leaders sharing ideas and knowledge about culture’s role in public policy in a world city context.
• Bengaluru:
  • Bengaluru (formerly Bangalore) is a megacity, the capital of the Southern state of Karnataka and the fastest growing city in India.
  • Its population has grown from one million in 1950 to over 16 million in 2023.
  • It is commonly referred to as the ‘Silicon Valley of India’ because of its role as the nation’s leading information technology exporter,
  • It is home to more than 30 government and private museums that showcase the city’s rich history, art and culture.
  • Most recently, South India’s first major private art museum, the Museum of Art and Photography (MAP), opened in February 2023.
  • Bengaluru’s distinction lies in being a rare city where both North Indian (Hindustani) and South Indian (Carnatic) classical music thrive.
  • As the “Garden City of India”, Bangaluru has many green spaces including two nationally recognised botanical gardens, Lal Bagh and Cubbon Park that act as green lungs for the city.

Lokmanya Tilak National Award

• The Prime Minister was honoured with the Lokmanya Tilak National Award on his visit to Pune.
• The award was instituted in 1983 by the Tilak Smarak Mandir Trust. 
• This award is given every year on 1st August, the death anniversary of Lokmanya Tilak, to persons who have made remarkable and extraordinary contributions, working for the progress and development of the nation.
• Lokmanya Tilak:
  • Bal Gangadhar Tilak, commonly known as Lokmanya Tilak, was a prominent Indian nationalist, freedom fighter, social reformer, and political leader during the Indian independence movement.
  • He was one of the prime architects of modern India and probably the strongest advocate of Swaraj or Self Rule for India. 
  • He is known for his slogan, “Swaraj is my birthright and I shall have it.”
  • He was born as Keshav Gangadhar Tilak and his followers bequeathed upon him the title of ‘Lokmanya’, meaning he who is revered by the people.
  • He was considered a radical Nationalist.
  • The British Government termed him the “Father of Indian Unrest”.
  • He joined the Indian National Congress Party in the year 1890.
  • He also helped found the All India Home Rule League in 1916–18 with G. S. Khaparde and Annie Besant. 
  • Tilak started his Home Rule League in Maharashtra, Central Provinces, and Karnataka and Berar region. Besant's League was active in the rest part of India. It aimed to advocate for self-rule and raise public awareness about India's right to govern itself.
  • Literary works:
    • Tilak was a prolific writer and journalist. He used his newspaper, “Kesari” (meaning Lion) in Marathi and later “Maratha” in English to disseminate nationalist ideas.
    • Some of his notable literary works include “The Arctic Home in the Vedas,” where he presented his theory that the Vedas originated in the Arctic region, and “Shrimad Bhagavad Gita Rahasya,” an interpretation of the Bhagavad Gita from a nationalist perspective.
  • Other works:
    • Tilak believed in the power of education and established the Deccan Education Society in Pune in 1884.
    • The society founded Fergusson College and the New English School, which played crucial roles in promoting modern education in Maharashtra.
    • Tilak taught mathematics at Fergusson College.
    • Lokmanya Tilak was also an advocate of social reform. He actively supported the eradication of social evils like untouchability and child marriage and promoted education for women.
  • He had popular leaders such as Bipin Chandra Pal and Lala Lajpat Rai as his political companions, and the three were popularly known as the ‘Lal-Bal-Pal triumvirate.’
  • He was arrested for sedition on multiple occasions. His most prolonged incarceration lasted from 1908 to 1914, during which he wrote the famous book “Gita Rahasya” (The Secret of the Bhagavad Gita).
  • In 1916 he concluded the Lucknow Pact with Mohammed Ali Jinnah, which provided for Hindu-Muslim unity in the nationalist struggle.

UNMESHA AND UTKARSH Festivals

• These festivals were organised by Sahitya Akademi and Sangeet Natak Akademi, respectively,with the purpose of celebrating inclusivity and cultural diversity.
• Sangeet Natak Akademi:
  • It is the apex body in the field of performing arts in the country, was set up in 1953 for the preservation and promotion of the vast intangible heritage of India’s diverse culture expressed in forms of music, dance and drama.
  • The Chairman of the Akademi is appointed by the President of India for a term of five years.
  • The Sangeet Natak Akademi Awards are the highest national recognition conferred on practising artists.
  • The Akademi also confers Fellowships on eminent artists and scholars of music, dance and drama; and has in 2006 instituted annual awards to young artists – the Ustad Bismillah Khan Yuva Puraskar. 
• Sahitya Akademi:
  • Sahitya Akademi, India's national academy of letters was established in 1954 by the Government of India.
  • As India's premier literary institution, the Akademi preserves and promotes literature contained in twenty-four Indian languages recognised by it through awards, fellowships, grants, publications, literary programmes, workshops and exhibitions.
  • The Akademi also undertakes literary exchange programmes with various countries across the globe to promote Indian literature beyond the shores of India.
• UNMESHA:
  • It is India's most inclusive and Asia's largest literature festival in terms of the number of languages represented.
  • More than 575 authors in 102 languages are expected to participate in over 75 events in 'Unmesha 2023', and writers from 13 countries will participate in the festival.
  • This will be the second edition of 'Unmesha'. The first event was held in Shimla in June 2022.
• UTKARSH:
  • It showcases the folk and tribal Performing Arts
  • It casts a spotlight on the treasure trove of India’s folk and tribal heritage, endowing these expressive art forms with a resplendent stage to captivate and enthral.
  • A poignant tribute to the nation’s cultural legacy, ‘Utkarsh’ serves as a vital launchpad for traditional artists and performers to unfurl their artistry, safeguarding the priceless heritage of myriad communities.
  • Amidst its vibrant canvas, ‘Utkarsh’ brings forth a vivid tableau of cultural diversity, nurturing an appreciation for indigenous arts and underscoring their intrinsic value in an increasingly interconnected world.

Quit India Movement Day 2023

• Every year Quit India Day is observed on August 8 to commemorate the occasion.
• This year marks the 81st anniversary of the event. (2023)
• The Quit India Movement, also known as the August Movement or Bharat Chodo Andolan, was a significant civil disobedience movement launched by Mahatma Gandhi and the Indian National Congress on August 8, 1942 at Gowalia Tank Maidan also known as August Kranti Maidan in Bombay.
• On this day, August 8th, in 1942, Gandhi gave the famous “Do or Die” speech, urging the Indian people to act decisively and nonviolently against British rule.
• Causes:
  • While factors leading to such a movement had been building up, matters came to a head with the failure of the Cripps Mission.
  • The failure of the Cripps Mission made Gandhi realise that freedom would come only if Indians fought tooth and nail for it.
  • The movement aimed to demand an end to British colonial rule in India and achieve full independence.
• Protests:
  • The movement saw widespread protests, strikes and acts of civil disobedience across the country.
  • People participated in marches, demonstrations, and various forms of nonviolent resistance.
  • Women played a vital role in the Quit India Movement, displaying immense courage and leadership.
  • During the movement, parallel governments were set up in Ballia (Uttar Pradesh), Satara (Maharashtra), Tamluk (West Bengal), and Talcher (Odisha).
  • Numerous arrests were made following the protest. Many top leaders of Congress, including Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru and Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, were also arrested.

Megalithic Site

• A large number of megalithic hat stones were found from a single site during a recent archaeological salvage excavation conducted by the Kerala State Archaeology Department at Nagaparamba in Kuttippuram village, near Tirunavaya.
• Hat stones, popularly called Thoppikkallu in Malayalam, are hemispherical laterite stones used as lid on burial urns during the megalithic period are fond here.
• The findings may throw light on the life and culture of people who lived in those parts more than 2,000 years ago.
• Megaliths:
  • These were constructed either as burial sites or commemorative(non-sepulchral)  memorials
  • The former are sites with actual burial remains, such as dolmenoid cists (box-shaped stone burial chambers), cairn circles (stone circles with defined peripheries) and capstones (distinctive mushroom-shaped burial chambers found mainly in Kerala). 
  • Non-sepulchral megaliths include memorial sites such as menhirs.
  • In India, archaeologists trace the majority of the megaliths to the Iron Age (1500 BC to 500 BC).
  • In India, these are concentrated in the states of Maharashtra (mainly in Vidarbha), Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh and Telangana.
• Tirunavaya:
  • It is the land of ancient Mamankam.
  • It is situated on the banks of Bharathapuzha river; it is a place of historical importance.
  • In olden days, Mamankam a grand assembly of rulers was held once in 12 years here.

Madan Lal Dhingra

• On the 114th death anniversary of Madan Lal Dhingra, a massive memorial was inaugurated in Amritsar, where he hailed from.
• Madan Lal Dhingra was an Indian revolutionary freedom fighter.
• He was born on 18 February 1883 in Amritsar.
• Dhingra received his early education in Amritsar and later moved to England for further studies. He enrolled at University College, London, where he studied engineering.
• While in England, Dhingra became deeply involved in the activities of the Indian independence movement.
• He came in contact with the revolutionaries like Vinayak Damodar Savarkar, Shyamji Krishna Varma, the founder of Indian House, and several others.
• On July 1, 1909, Madan Lal Dhingra assassinated Sir William Hutt Curzon Wyllie, a retired British Indian Army officer and a prominent official, during a public meeting in London's Imperial Institute.
• During the trial, he claimed that he had murdered Curzon-Wyllie as a patriotic act and in revenge for the inhumane killings of Indians by the British Government in India.
• He was found guilty and sentenced to death. 
• He was hanged to death on August 17, 1909, at the age of only 24.
• He was disowned by his family for his anti-British leanings – so much so that even after his death his family refused to take his body.

Mylara Cult

• The recent discovery of two sculptures at Basrur in Udupi district of Karnataka has proved that the ancient Mylara cult existed in the coastal region.
• The two sculptures resemble one belonging to 15th century A.D. and another to 17th century A.D.
• It shows a royal hero sitting on the horse, holding a sword and a bowl in his right and left hands respectively.
• But there is no Mylaladevi on the back of the horse. The horse shown in holding swords in their right hands was found in another water body.
• Basrur was a historical trading city of the Medieval period.
• Trading guilds like Uhayadesi, Nanadesi and others actively participated in the trade.
• Mylara Cult:
  • Mylara is a folk deity, identified as a manifestation of Lord Shiva.
  • This deity, commonly known as Mailara in Karnataka and as Khandoba in Maharashtra, has a plethora of other names as well, such as Khanderao, Khandnatha.
  • This cult is prevalent in the southern part of India including Karnataka, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu.

Bidriware

• It is a form of metal handicraft that has Persian influences and has been made for centuries by artisans from Karnataka’s Bidar district.
• It is renowned for its intricate, handcrafted designs.
• The origin of Bidriware as a craft is attributed mostly to the Bahamani Sultans who ruled the region during the 14th and 15th centuries.
• It was first brought to India by the noted Sufi Khwaja Moinuddin Hasan Chisti in the form of utensils.
• The art form developed in the kingdom was a mix of Turkish, Persian and Arabic influences, which were intermingled with the local styles, and thus a unique style of its own was born.
• This native art form has obtained a Geographical Indications (GI) registry.
• Bidar in Karnataka and Hyderabad in Telangana are the most vibrant centers of Bidriware.
• Bidri Ware is manufactured from an alloy of copper and zinc (in the ratio 1:16) by casting. 
• The zinc content gives the alloy a deep black colour.
• The craftsman uses small chisels to engrave the design over the freehand etching.
• Fine wire or flattened strips of pure silver are then carefully hammered into these grooves. 
• A special variety of soil, which is available only in the unlit portions of the Bidar fort, is used for the final blackening process. It is mixed with ammonium chloride and water to produce a paste, which is then rubbed onto a heated Bidri surface. The paste selectively darkens the body while it has no effect on the silver inlay.
• The product then undergoes a process called buffing to smoothen the surface.

Kokborok Language

• Kokborok is the language spoken by the Borok people belonging to the State of Tripura. 
• The term kok means “verbal”, and borok means “people” or “human”. 
• It is a Sino-Tibetan language and can be traced back to at least the 1st century AD when the historical record of Tripuri kings started to be written down in a book called the Raj Ratnakar. 
• The dialect belongs to the Tibeto-Burman group of languages and its root can be traced to the Sino-Tibetan speech family.
• Kokborok got the written form in the year of 1897 as Doulot  Ahammad  a muslim scholar wrote the first Kokborok Grammar named “ KOKBOROMA ANG TRIPURA – VYAKARAN GRAMMAR.”
• It is one of the state languages of Tripura notified on January 19, 1979.

Pulikkali

• Pulikkali (Tiger Dance) is one among the folk art forms of Kerala.
• On the fourth day of Onam festival, artists paint their bodies like tigers with stripes of yellow, red and black and dance to the rhythm of traditional percussion instruments such as thakil, udukku and chenda.
• The Swaraj Ground in Thrissur district plays host to this carnival that has people appearing in various unique hues and masks.
• The main theme of this folk art is tiger hunting with participants playing the role of tiger and hunter.
• It was introduced by the erstwhile ruler of Cochin, Maharaja Rama Varma Sakthan Thampuran.
• Onam:
  • It is the biggest and the most important festival of the state of Kerala.
  • It is a harvest festival, celebrated in the beginning of the month of Chingam, the first month of the Malayalam Calendar (Kollavarsham).
  • The Onam lasts from four to ten days. First day, Atham and tenth day, Thiruonam are the most important of all.
  • According to a popular legend, the festival is celebrated to welcome King Mahabali, whose spirit is said to visit Kerala at the time of Onam.
  • Another key feature is Vallamkali, the Snake Boat Race, held on the river Pampa.
  • Kaikotti kali and Thumbi Thullal are two graceful dances performed by women on Onam.

Cheriyal Scroll Painting: Nakashi Art

• It is a popular and modified version of Nakashi art, considered highly rich in the local motifs.
• These paintings were mostly confined to Cheriyal village, and hence called Cheriyal scrolls.
• This art form is unique to the state of Telangana and made mostly in Hyderabad currently.
• The Nakashis are the artists of Telangana and the scrolls constitute a key element of the social and cultural setting of Telangana.
• This traditional art form is considered an inseparable part of the profession comprising the story-telling and balladeer community called Kaki Padagollu.
• These scrolls are painted in narrative format similar to a film roll or even comic strips, and depict stories from the Indian mythology as well as the shorter stories related to the Puranas and Epics (Mahabharata, Ramayana, Shiva Puranam, Markandey Puranam)
• The Cheriyal paintings represent a distinct local invention, based mainly on local traditions.
• The ballads and folk stories of Gauda, Madiga and other communities.
• These are painted in vivid hues with mostly primary colors, showing a predominance of red color in the background.
• In this form of art, the iconography of major deities like Vishnu, Shiva, etc. too carry a strong local idiom.
• The subjects of the scroll paintings are mostly drawn from mythological, ancient literary and folk traditions.
• The main narrative involves scenes from common rural life such as women performing kitchen chores, men working in fields or experiencing merry, festival settings, etc.
• Artists have displayed these scrolls which are also accompanied by music and dance.
• The traditional scrolls are mostly of vertical format and illustrate the stories through a series of horizontal panels.
• Compared to the long scrolls in the past, now artists have adapted to paint smaller versions of these scrolls that only depict any single episode or few characters from the traditional stories.
• One of the recent innovations is the painting of single pictures instead of a continuous scroll for the purpose of wall decorations.
• This painting also received the Geographical Indication (GI) tag in the year 2007.

Akshardham Temple

• The Akshardham Temple, officially known as the Swaminarayan Akshardham Temple, is a Hindu temple complex located in Delhi, India.
• It is Located on the banks of the Yamuna River.
• It was officially opened to the public on 6th November 2005.
• It was inaugurated by the President of India late Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam. 
• Akshardham Temple God is Bhagwan Swaminarayan (1781- 1830). However, it is also dedicated to great saints, devas and averts of Hindu Gods.
• The temple comprises of the main temple, beautifully laid out gardens, exhibitions, open courtyards and water bodies, each section presenting an intriguing aspect of Hindu religion and spirituality.
• Constructed with pink sandstone and marble, Akshardham Mandir is the centre of the Akshardham Temple complex.
• It is built in the traditional Hindu architectural style.
• It follows the traditional Vastu shastra as well as Pancharatra Shastra.
• The mandir and the entire complex display intricate carvings of flowers, animals, musicians, dancers and Hindu deities.

Konark Temple Wheel

• The Konark wheel was built during the 13th century under the reign of King Narasimhadeva-I.
• The wheel with 24 spokes is also adapted into India's national flag embodies India's ancient wisdom, advanced civilisation, and architectural excellence.
• The rotating motion of the Konark Wheel symbolises time, Kalachakra as well as progress and continuous change.
• It serves as a powerful symbol of the wheel of democracy that reflects the resilience of democratic ideals, and commitment to progress in society.
• Konark Sun Temple:
  • It is located on the eastern shores of the India.
  • It is the culmination of Kalingan temple architecture, with all its defining elements in complete and perfect form
  • It was built in 1250 CE by King Narasimhadeva I (r. 1238-1264 CE) of the Eastern Ganga dynasty.
  • The temple in its present state was declared by UNESCO a World Heritage Site in 1984.
  • The word 'Konark' is a combination of two Sanskrit words kona (corner or angle) and arka (the sun).
  • It thus implies that the main deity was the sun god, and the temple was built in an angular format.
  • The temple follows the Kalinga or Orissa style of architecture, which is a subset of the nagara style of Hindu temple architecture. 

Phanigiri Artefacts

• The Phanigiri artefacts belonging to 200 BCE-400 CE and discovered in 1942, are on display at New York Metropolitan Museum of Art.
• The Phanigiri Buddhist site is considered one of the most important finds in Buddhist iconography in this millennium.
• Phanigiri (meaning hillock of snake hood) is a small village in the state of Telangana.
• Findings:
  • The thoranas discovered at Phanigiri are very important as they are among the first found south of Sanchi.
  • The same thorana has a panel that shows both Mahayana and Hinayana school of thought. 
  • There is evidence from Phanigiri that shows the deification of Buddha, and we can date this change. From a historical and spiritual identity there is a transition to canonisation and ritual.
  • The monograph of the event has the image of the Buddha, wearing what looks like a Roman toga with folds, carved in limestone.

Megalithic Dolmen Site

• Unique terracotta figurines in different states of preservation have been found in recent archaeological explorations conducted in the megalithic dolmen site at Mudu Konaje, near Moodbidri, in Dakshina Kannada.
• Megalithic culture is known by its different types of burials and use of iron in India. Dolmen is one among them.
• Under a dolmen, huge stone slabs known as orthostats were erected in clockwise order, which created a square room.
• This square chamber was closed by an another huge stone slab as a cap stone.
• Generally, on the Eastern slab, a round or U-shaped entrance known as port-hole was created.
• It was known by different names in South India like Kalmane, Pandavara Mane, Moriyara Mane and Moriyara Betta etc which reveals its popularity among the common people.
• Findings in Mudu Konaje site:
  • The figurines were datable to 800-700 BC.
  • It was the biggest megalithic dolmen site which consisted nine dolmens on the slope of a stone hill.
  • Of the eight figurines found, there are two cow bovines, one mother goddess, two peacocks, a horse, a hand of a mother goddess, and an unknown object.